Read an Excerpt

CHAPTER 1

Blackbird

The name blackbird has been in use since at least medieval times, but our Anglo-Saxon forebears preferred the term ouzel (pronounced 'oozle'). For many centuries these two words were used side by side in books of natural history – 'the blackbird or ouzel' – but by the late nineteenth century it was blackbird that emerged as the dominant name.

In Scotland the bird was often known as the blackie and in certain areas of England the merle or colley, the latter probably because of its coal colour. Interestingly, eighteenth-century versions of the seasonal song The Twelve Days of Christmas describe blackbirds being sent on the fourth day:

The fourth day of Christmas My true love sent to me:
Four colley birds,
Three French hens,
Two turtle doves And a partridge in a pear tree.

Later adaptations seem to have changed 'colley birds' to the more widely understood 'calling birds'. Another set of famous verses to feature the blackbird is the nursery rhyme Sing a Song for Sixpence, which was known in the eighteenth century but may have earlier origins:

Sing a song for sixpence,
A pocket full of rye.
Four and twenty blackbirds, Baked in a pie.
When the pie was opened The birds began to sing;
Wasn't that a dainty dish To set before the king.

The blackbird has inspired writers of more earnest works than nursery rhymes. Poets down the ages from Shakespeare and Spenser, to John Clare and Thomas Hardy have tried to capture something of the blackbird's song and character. Tennyson wrote an entire poem called The Blackbird, which opens with these lines:

O blackbird! sing me something well:
While all the neighbours shoot thee round,
I keep smooth plats of fruitful ground,
Where thou may'st warble, eat and dwell.

The bird has also inspired musicians, with multiple tracks entitled Blackbird being released over the years from the likes of Paul McCartney, Nina Simone, Myles Kennedy and even The Wurzels to name a few. In terms of durability, one of the most well known of these songs is Bye Bye Blackbird. Originally written in the 1920s by American lyricist Mort Dixon, it has been covered by numerous artists and has become a classic. Some songs featuring the blackbird use the word symbolically to represent black people's struggle for equality.

The British love of the blackbird led to it being kept as an inexpensive pet for many centuries, and it is mentioned as a caged bird in some medieval bestiaries. The strong and clear song of the male bird made it especially popular, yet some individuals were taught new tunes or even learned to speak a few words. In the early nineteenth century, books about caged birds still included the blackbird as a noted favourite with instruction that, being territorial, they required a large cage to themselves. The following instance of an especially long-lived pet blackbird was reported to the Belfast Commercial Chronicle in 1839:

Early nineteenth-century blackbird cage.

There is at present in the possession of Mr John Spence, of Tullaghgarley, near Ballymena, a blackbird that has arrived at the wonderful age of twenty years and nearly eight months. It was taken by him from the nest when young, and ever since has enjoyed the very best of health. It still continues to sing, and that well. He is however, beginning to show symptoms of old age – his head is getting grey, and a number of white feathers are springing up on his neck and breast.

There is little folklore, legend or symbolism attached to the blackbird in the UK. Yet the Christian Church was keen to exploit nature for symbolic purposes and two saints in particular have been associated with this bird. The first is St Benedict, who was tempted by the Devil in the form of a blackbird. The blackbird came 'fluttering round about him and coming so near his face that he might have catched it in his hand'. This strange experience greatly disconcerted Benedict to the extent that his usually rigid focus on the work of God wavered, and he found himself sorely tempted by sexual desire. Yet the holy man did not succumb:

He stripped himself of his clothes, and casting himself upon a thicket of briars and thorns, there rolled his naked body so long that it was most pitifully rent, mangled and torn, and ran gore blood; and by this excessive and stinging pain he quenched the scorching fire which Satan had kindled in his members.

God was apparently so pleased with the saint's resistance, that Benedict was never again tempted by sex for the rest of his life.

The second saint associated with the blackbird is from Ireland. Saint Kevin was a man who lived close to nature and one day while reaching his hands up to heaven in deep supplication, a blackbird is supposed to have landed on his outstretched palm and laid an egg there. Perhaps viewing this as a test of his devotion or at least unwilling to disturb the bird, Saint Kevin stayed in this position for days until the egg hatched. Hence many representations of this saint show him with a bird in his hand.

Blue Tit

The term 'blue tit' was originally an abbreviation of blue titmouse, and the story of how we have come to use the shortened form 'tit' is quite interesting. The Anglo-Saxons called small birds of this kind by the word mase, which probably just meant 'little'. In time this became mose, and in the early middle ages, the prefix 'tit-' was added, meaning small. So the new name titmose actually meant small little bird. At some later point, being unaware of the word's history, it was assumed that this group of birds had been named after the mouse because of their size, fluffy appearance and quick movements, and consequently titmose became titmouse. In the twentieth century it was universally shortened to 'tit'.

The story of this bird's name does not end there. One of the most remarkable facts about the blue tit is the large number of different regional names it has acquired over the centuries. Perhaps this is a tribute to the bird's beauty and its endearing nature. In Scotland it has been known as the blue bonnet or blue yaup – blue bonnets were traditionally a common form of Scottish headdress, whilst 'yaup' was an old word for nimble or eager, which certainly describes the bird's very busy movements when searching for food. Another Scottish name is blue ox-eye, maybe because the bird's dark eye stands out against its pale head. In England, blue cap has been a more common name, and since at least the sixteenth century it has also been known as the 'nun' because it seems to wear a white headband like a nun.

The blue tit is quite a vocal creature and some regional names such as the Dorset 'chintree' or Lancashire 'jitty-fa' are imitative of the bird's call; the more widespread pinnock may be another example, with 'pinn' perhaps representing the bird's sound and the suffix -ock meaning 'little'. There is a long tradition in the UK of giving human sobriquets to popular birds such as Jenny Wren, Jack Daw and so on. The blue tit has been frequently known as Tom Tit, but also Billy Biter because when captured the bird fights tenaciously and will give a fearsome nip. Other names like pinchem and Billy Nipper attest to this injurious behaviour. Hickmall is a regional name that was widely used in the West Country, and there are many others including tiddley, nope, and bluey. Chaucer mentions a bird called the 'tidife', which is also believed to refer to the blue tit.

Those who are old enough to remember milk being delivered to the doorstep in bottles will undoubtedly recall how unattended bottles would sometimes be raided by blue tits. The birds learned that pecking through the aluminium cap allowed access to the cream at the top, and in our household they were particularly drawn to the richer 'gold cap' full cream milk. Blue tits have been known for centuries as birds that will scavenge dairy products and other foods from households, and so in parts of East Anglia it was known as the pickcheese. Eighteenth-century naturalist Gilbert White commented on the bird's scavenging habits around human dwellings:

The blue titmouse, or nun, is a great frequenter of houses, and a general devourer. Beside insects, it is very fond of flesh; for it frequently picks bones on dung-hills: it is a vast admirer of suet, and haunts butchers' shops. When a boy, I have known twenty in a morning caught with snap mousetraps, baited with tallow or suet. It will also pick holes in apples left on the ground, and be well entertained with the seeds on the head of a sunflower.

People admire the blue tit for its colourful appearance but also its agility – hanging upside down, balancing on twigs that seem far too thin to support its weight, and flitting constantly from branch to branch. The Victorian 'countryside' poet John Clare mentions the bird on several occasions in his poems. These evocative lines in The Firetail's Nest capture the blue tit's feeding behaviour well:

And then the bluecap tootles in its glee,
Picking the flies from orchard apple tree

Despite its tiny size, the blue tit also has a much-admired reputation as a pugnacious bird that will defend its corner. George Montagu published a pioneering book about British birds in 1802, and he describes the blue tit's attitude in defence of its home:

The female is tenacious of her nest and will often suffer herself to be taken rather than quit it, and will frequently return again after being taken out. Upon such an occasion it menaces the invader in a singular manner, hissing like a snake, erecting all its feathers, and uttering a noise like the spitting of a cat; and if handled, bites severely.

The blue tit is renowned for sometimes nesting in the most peculiar places, and eighteenth- and nineteenth-century naturalists competed to report the most unusual nest locations: down the shaft of a well where the birds regularly got wet; in the handle of a working water pump; inside a bottle left in the garden to dry; underground in a mouse hole; in a labourer's boot; within 2 feet of the rails at a busy mainline railway station. But surely the most bizarre nest location was described by a magazine correspondent in 1832:

Tomtit or blue titmouse. I am aware that this little bird will choose curious places for bringing up its young, but the following surpasses all I ever before heard of. Some years ago, a man of the name of Tom Otter murdered his sweetheart at a place called Drinsey Nook, in Lincolnshire. The assassin suffered the extreme penalty of the law, and [in 1805] was gibbeted near the place where he committed the fatal deed. It appears that whilst the carnivorous tomtit was feeding on the flesh of the malefactor, he had an eye to a comfortable habitation in the vicinity of so much good cheer; and as there was no hole in the gibbet post to suit his purpose, he actually took possession of the dead man's mouth, and he and his mate brought forth a brood of young cannibals; and more than that, they built there the next year and were equally successful in rearing their young. I think I hear some of your readers say, 'Come, come, Mr Woodcock; you are now dealing in the marvellous and are rather stretching it,' but I can assure you, Sir, it is correct, as I have had it corroborated by several eye-witnesses.

Notwithstanding this rather gruesome tale, the blue tit is a much-loved bird. With its spirited attitude, pretty plumage, and acrobatic behaviour it is no surprise that many people enjoy watching it and are keen to invite it into their gardens.

Chicken

The chicken is the commonest bird in the world because it is bred in enormous numbers to be eaten by humans. The female is called the hen and the male is the cockerel in the UK, but the rooster in countries such as the US. The domesticated chicken is descended principally from the wild junglefowl of Asia. Although they have existed in Egypt since at least the fifteenth century BC, the chicken probably came to Europe via Asia Minor (modern Turkey) and then to Greece by around the seventh century BC. Chickens in the UK are first mentioned in writing by Julius Caesar when he describes his invasion of Britannia for the second time in 54 BC. Curiously, he says: 'They do not regard it lawful to eat the hare, and the cock, and the goose; they, however, breed them for amusement and pleasure.' As far as chickens are concerned, this may mean that they were kept principally for their eggs and for fighting.

In most cultures, chickens were domesticated mainly to eat and for their eggs, but in certain ancient civilisations they could have important religious functions too. Chickens were one of a number of animals that might be sacrificed to appease the gods, but the Greeks, Etruscans and Romans, for example, believed that chickens could also foretell the will of the Gods. Determining whether a particular action would have divine endorsement was called taking the auspices, and in military operations the Romans relied almost exclusively on chickens. These birds were taken around on campaigns under the care of a person called a pullarius. He would open their cage before going into battle and throw food to the chickens. If they refused to come out, did not eat, uttered a cry, or beat their wings then the signs were unfavourable and it was recommended not to join battle. However, if the chickens ate greedily it was considered a sign of divine favour, especially if some of the food fell from the birds' mouths and struck the ground.

Roman leaders who ignored the sacred chickens did so at their peril. The consul Publius Claudius Pulcher was determined to engage the Carthaginians in a sea battle in 249 BC; however, the sacred chickens refused to eat. Enraged, Claudius snatched up the cage with the birds in and threw it over the side of his ship, saying, 'Let them drink if they don't wish to eat!' He lost the battle along with ninety-three ships, 8,000 men, and 20,000 Romans taken as prisoners. When Gaius Mancinus was appointed as consul in 137 BC, the sacred chickens issued the most dire portent possible against the appointment: they flew away and were never seen again. Mancinus lost heavily in battle later that year and was arraigned for cowardice.

Another religious connection involving the chicken is featured in the Christian Bible. At the Last Supper, Jesus listened while his disciple Peter insisted that no matter what happened he would always stand by him. But Jesus prophesied to a sceptical Peter that he would deny him three times before the next morning. After Jesus was arrested, Peter trailed him at a distance and on two occasions people accused him of being a follower of Jesus, but he denied it. Then he was confronted a third time:

About an hour later another man insisted, saying, 'This fellow was certainly with him. Why, he is a Galilean.' 'My friend,' said Peter 'I do not know what you are talking about.' At that instant, while he was still speaking, the cock crowed, and the Lord turned and looked straight at Peter, and Peter remembered what the Lord had said to him, 'Before the cock crows today, you will have disowned me three times.' And he went outside and wept bitterly.

This story is told in each of the first four Gospels of the New Testament, and is the main reason why a cockerel is traditionally used as the weather vane on top of church spires. The cockerel reminds Christians about St Peter and encourages them to stand up for what they believe and not to deny their God.

The cockerel or chicken is also the only bird to be represented among the twelve animals that make up the Chinese zodiac. People born under this sign are said to be assertive, communicative, intelligent and busy, but inclined to be critical, bossy and eccentric.

Quite apart from religious or prophetic powers, chickens have been the basis of a surprisingly large number of medical treatments over the centuries. In medieval times, a chicken's belly was plucked and the naked part held over a swelling or sore, such as the buboes caused by the Black Death, to transfer the poison of disease into the live bird and save the afflicted person. In other situations, if wounds were not healing satisfactorily then seventeenth-century physician Alexander Read advised:

It is not amiss to pull the feathers from the bums of hens or cocks, and to apply them often to the wounded part; or to apply young pigeons or chickens hot, being cut asunder.

Dr Read also gave advice on treating dog bites, and stressed how important it was to determine if the dog was mad before initiating treatment. If the dog was not available to examine, then its madness could be determined from the patient's wound using chickens:

We are to beat some walnuts and to apply them to the wound, and to suffer them to lie to it for a night's space. When they are taken away, they are to be given to a cock or a hen. If the dog hath not been mad, they shall live; but if he was mad, they shall die the day after.

There were a whole variety of other alleged medical uses for chicken meat, eggs and even its dung to treat conditions including fever, incontinence and headaches. However, since Roman times a soup or broth made from chicken was valued as a general restorative for those who were ill because it is 'easily digested and breeds good blood'. It was especially recommended for alleviating the loss of vitality caused by dysentery, and in the nineteenth century, cholera.

---

Excerpted from "A History of Birds"
by .
Copyright © 2017 Simon Wills.
Excerpted by permission of Pen and Sword Books Ltd.
All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
Excerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. solely for the personal use of visitors to this web site.

---